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Kaimen Rigor review

Immune and metabolic effects of African heritage diets versus Western diets in men: a randomized controlled trial.

Temba GS, Pecht T, Kullaya VI, Vadaq N, Mosha MV, Ulas T, Kanungo S, van Emst L, Bonaguro L, Schulte-Schrepping J, Mafuru E, Lionetti P, Mhlanga MM, van der Ven AJ, Cavalieri D, Joosten LAB, Kavishe RA, Mmbaga BT, Schultze JL, Netea MG, de Mast Q

DOI: 10.1038/s41591-025-03602-0
Record issued: 2026-08-15
Engine: 7.39.0
Exported: 2026-09-20

Prepared by Alpha1. This document is confidential: it is intended for the recipient it was shared with and must not be redistributed. The live record at alpha1science.com/verify/712c948e-f591-4917-862a-3e29d617289a is authoritative.

Kaimen Rigor review

Kaimen Rigor reviewed

1.5 / 5

Critical — serious problems across many checks

Interventional Study

Critical

High-priority

How this rating was calculated

Started at 5★ — deductions

IntegrityIntegrity concern ×4−2★
ClaimsEfficacy rests on an unvalidated surrogate endpoint−0.5★
ClaimsTreatment effect not shown to be clinically meaningful−0.5★
ReportingStudy design partially met−0.25★
ReportingEthical approvals partially met−0.25★

Model-reported confidence: highReviewer agreement: highEngine: 7.39.0Source: full text

Not verified in this report

Statistics were not checked: no recomputable values were found in this text — no test statistic reported with its degrees of freedom, no effect estimate printed with both a 95% CI and a p-value, and no percentage printed with both its count and its denominator.

Biggest issues

01Efficacy rests on an unvalidated surrogate endpoint
highOverreachreviewer-assessedFull detail
The primary outcomes are changes in immune and metabolic profiles (plasma proteome, cytokine production, metabolome, transcriptome), which are surrogate biomarkers. The paper does not demonstrate target engagement at the tested dose (no PK/PD data) nor cite validated evidence linking these surrogates to clinical outcomes. The claim of 'anti-inflammatory' and 'pro-inflammatory' effects is based on biomarker changes without established clinical relevance.
“Primary outcomes were changes in the immune and metabolic profile before and after the intervention and at the 4-week follow-up.”
Find in source
02Treatment effect not shown to be clinically meaningful
highOverreachreviewer-assessedFull detail
The reported effects are changes in biomarker levels (e.g., cytokine responses, protein concentrations) without anchoring to clinically meaningful thresholds or minimal clinically important differences. For example, the switch to WD increased CRP (P=0.020) but the magnitude is not contextualized. The paper acknowledges limitations: 'the study only provided molecular insights into short-term changes in immunometabolic features and pathways because of dietary practices but did not assess long-term clinical outcomes.'
“the study only provided molecular insights into short-term changes in immunometabolic features and pathways because of dietary practices but did not assess long-term clinical outcomes.”
Find in source

Findings by category

101ArithmeticNumerical inconsistencies 302OverreachOverstated conclusions 03AuthenticityNone found 204DisclosureReporting gaps 05AvailabilityNone found 06Copyedit6 minor suggestions

This Kaimen Rigor review uses Kaimen Rigor reviewers trained on a curated corpus of high-fidelity and retracted papers, with expert supervision and curation. It can still make mistakes; verify each finding against the source before relying on it.

The paper is a well-conducted open-label randomized controlled crossover trial with strong data and code availability, thorough statistical methods, and transparent reporting. The main weaknesses are missing details on randomization method, blinding rationale, power analysis, and explicit ethics approval and informed consent statements.

Both reviewers classified the study as interventional, and this was adopted. The evaluation covered all eight dimensions; several sub-criteria were not applicable (e.g., animal-related items). The reviewers agreed on all dimension statuses, so no divergence needed reconciliation.

Numerical inconsistencies

1 finding · worst low

Values that contradict each other or are impossible for the stated sample: recomputed p-values and test statistics, GRIM/GRIMMER checks on summary numbers, percentages against their own counts, totals against their parts, and estimates against their own confidence intervals.

Internal contradictions in the reported numbersAssessed

lowinternal contradiction
The median age reported as 25.6 years with IQR 21-27.2 seems inconsistent; the median should be within the IQR, but 25.6 is plausible. However, the IQR lower bound (21) and upper bound (27.2) suggest a median closer to 24. This is a minor concern.
“Seventy-seven healthy adult men (median age = 25.6 years; interquartile range (IQR) = 21–27.2)”
ResultsFind in source
lowinternal contradiction
In the metabolome results, the text says 'while 74 increased and 24 decreased after the intervention compared to the baseline' but this appears to be a repetition of the previous sentence's time point; likely a typo.
“while 74 increased and 24 decreased after the intervention compared to the baseline”
ResultsFind in source
lowinternal contradiction
The number of participants in the AHD to WD group is reported as 23 in one place and 22 in another, with one withdrawal noted.
men living in rural areas ( n = 23) who habitually consumed a Kilimanjaro heritage-style diet and switched to a Western-style diet for 2 weeks; ... After one participant withdrew from the study before the end of the intervention, the first group included young rural-living men ( n = 22)
Figure 1reviewer’s wording
lowinternal contradiction
The number of participants in the fermented beverage group is reported as 22 in the text but 21 in the transcriptome analysis.
the fermented beverage group ( n = 21) ... Fermented beverage consumption resulted in 26 upregulated and 104 downregulated DEGs
Figure 5reviewer’s wording

Overstated conclusions

3 findings · worst high

Conclusions that reach past what the paper's own results support — including a significance claim that no longer holds when the statistic is recomputed, and efficacy resting on an unvalidated surrogate endpoint.

Efficacy rests on an unvalidated surrogate endpointAssessed
Treatment effect not shown to be clinically meaningfulAssessed
Conclusions only partially backed by the presented evidenceAssessed

4 major claims checked against the paper's own evidence: 1 only partially supported (evidence backs part of the claim; gaps or caveats remain); the rest adequately supported.

partialReviewers 1, 2
The findings underscore the importance of preserving indigenous dietary practices to mitigate NCD risk factors.
The study shows short-term benefits of heritage diets, but the claim about preserving practices is a broader inference that goes beyond the direct evidence.
Evidence: Discussion section.
“These findings show the metabolic and immune effects of dietary transitions and the consumption of fermented beverages, underscoring the importance of preserving indigenous dietary practices to mitigate noncommunicable disease risk factors in sub-Saharan Africa.”
AbstractFind in source
supportedReviewers 1, 2
Switching from heritage to Western diet promotes a pro-inflammatory state with impaired whole-blood cytokine responses.
The paper provides direct evidence from proteomics, cytokine assays, and transcriptomics showing increased inflammatory proteins and decreased cytokine responses.
Evidence: Results sections on plasma proteome, cytokine production, and transcriptome.
“The switch from heritage-style to Western-style diet affected different metabolic pathways associated with noncommunicable diseases and promoted a pro-inflammatory state with impaired whole-blood cytokine responses to microbial stimulation.”
AbstractFind in source
supportedReviewers 1, 2
Switching from Western to heritage diet or consuming fermented beverage has anti-inflammatory effects.
The paper shows reductions in inflammatory proteins and increases in anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) in these arms.
Evidence: Results sections on plasma proteome and cytokine production.
“In contrast, the switch from Western-style to heritage-style diet or consuming the fermented beverage had a largely anti-inflammatory effect.”
AbstractFind in source
supportedReviewers 1, 2
Some immune and metabolic changes persist at 4-week follow-up.
The paper reports sustained changes in several proteins, cytokines, and transcriptomic signatures at follow-up.
Evidence: Results sections on proteome, cytokine, and transcriptome follow-up analyses.
“Some of the observed changes in the immune and metabolic profiles persisted at the follow-up, suggesting a sustained impact from the short-term intervention.”
AbstractFind in source

Premise concern: surrogate not validated for clinical benefit; effect size not shown to be clinically meaningful.

INADEQUATESurrogate endpoint
The primary outcomes are changes in immune and metabolic profiles (plasma proteome, cytokine production, metabolome, transcriptome), which are surrogate biomarkers. The paper does not demonstrate target engagement at the tested dose (no PK/PD data) nor cite validated evidence linking these surrogates to clinical outcomes. The claim of 'anti-inflammatory' and 'pro-inflammatory' effects is based on biomarker changes without established clinical relevance.
“Primary outcomes were changes in the immune and metabolic profile before and after the intervention and at the 4-week follow-up.”
Find in source
INADEQUATEEffect size
The reported effects are changes in biomarker levels (e.g., cytokine responses, protein concentrations) without anchoring to clinically meaningful thresholds or minimal clinically important differences. For example, the switch to WD increased CRP (P=0.020) but the magnitude is not contextualized. The paper acknowledges limitations: 'the study only provided molecular insights into short-term changes in immunometabolic features and pathways because of dietary practices but did not assess long-term clinical outcomes.'
“the study only provided molecular insights into short-term changes in immunometabolic features and pathways because of dietary practices but did not assess long-term clinical outcomes.”
Find in source

Data authenticity concerns

None found

An adversarial read for patterns associated with data that may not be genuine: results that look too clean, implausibly large effects, duplicated data or images, and methods that do not match the results reported.

Checked — nothing surfaced.

Reporting gaps

2 findings · worst medium

Required detail the manuscript never states — study design, biological variables, ethics approval and consent, key resources, statistical reporting, data and code availability, and overall transparency.

Ethics/consent reporting incompleteAssessed
Study-design details incomplete (controls, blinding, power)Assessed

Eight Dimensions6 pass · 2 warn

The introduction cites prior cross-sectional studies and literature on Western diets, heritage diets, and fermented foods, acknowledging limitations of cross-sectional designs. The rationale for the RCT is clearly stated, and the study objectives follow logically from the cited evidence. Limitations of prior research are addressed by the choice of an interventional design.

Sub-criteria

prior work citedADEQUATE

premise rationaleADEQUATE

limitations addressedADEQUATE

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

PASSReviewer 1· 90% conf

The paper establishes a clear scientific premise with extensive prior work and a logical rationale linking dietary transitions to immune and metabolic effects.

Evidence

paraphrase[Introduction, paragraph 3]

“Cross-sectional observational studies are limited in establishing causal relationships and controlling confounders. Therefore, we performed an open-label, randomized controlled trial...”

“The study investigated the effects of switching from a Western-style diet to a Kilimanjaro heritage diet and vice versa, and the effects of consuming the fermented beverage ‘Mbege’.”

Introduction ¶3Find in source

PASSReviewer 2· 90% conf

The paper establishes a clear scientific premise with extensive prior work and a logical rationale linking dietary transitions to immune and metabolic outcomes.

Evidence

paraphrase[Introduction, paragraph 3]

“In a previous cross-sectional study of healthy Tanzanian individuals from the Kilimanjaro region, we found that dietary patterns were associated with cytokine responses, plasma proteome and coagulation markers.”

paraphrase[Introduction, paragraph 4]

“Cross-sectional observational studies are limited in establishing causal relationships and controlling confounders. Therefore, we performed an open-label, randomized controlled trial...”

“The study investigated the effects of switching from a Western-style diet to a Kilimanjaro heritage diet and vice versa, and the effects of consuming the fermented beverage ‘Mbege’.”

Introduction ¶4Find in source

The trial is described as randomized and open-label, with three arms and control participants, but the randomization method and unit are not specified. Blinding is not addressed beyond the open-label designation, and no rationale for the open-label design is given. No a priori power analysis is reported. Inclusion/exclusion criteria are partially reported (BMI range), and the analysis population is defined. Outlier handling is not explicitly described, but the analysis approach (LMM with covariates) is detailed. Controls are included in the design.

Sub-criteria

controlsADEQUATE

power analysisNOT REPORTED

blinding levelsINADEQUATE

outlier handlingINADEQUATE

randomization unitNOT REPORTED

inclusion exclusionINADEQUATE

randomization methodNOT REPORTED

replicate distinctionN/A

independent replicationADEQUATE

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

WARNReviewer 1· 85% conf

The trial design is described in detail, but randomization method, blinding rationale, and a priori power analysis are not reported.

Evidence

paraphrase[Abstract]

“We conducted a randomized controlled trial in the Kilimanjaro region in Northern Tanzania...”

paraphrase[Results, Participant characteristics]

“Seventy-seven healthy adult men (median age = 25.6 years; interquartile range (IQR) = 21–27.2) participated in an open-label, short dietary intervention...”

paraphrase[Results, Independent validation via cross-sectional cohort]

“To validate the findings, we analyzed data from the 300 Tanzania functional genomics (TZFG) cohort...”

WARNReviewer 2· 80% conf

The study design is a randomized controlled trial with clear arms and outcomes, but lacks details on randomization method, blinding rationale, and a priori power analysis.

Evidence

“We conducted a randomized controlled trial in the Kilimanjaro region in Northern Tanzania”

AbstractFind in source

“Seventy-seven healthy adult men (median age = 25.6 years; interquartile range (IQR) = 21–27.2) participated in an open-label, short dietary intervention”

ResultsFind in source

“Participants with a body mass index (BMI) of 18–25.9 were eligible for inclusion; however, four participants with a BMI > 26 were inadvertently included.”

ResultsFind in source

The study enrolled only men, and sex is reported. Age and BMI are reported with medians and IQRs. Demographics include urban/rural residence and BMI categories. Since the study is single-sex, a justification for enrolling only men is not provided, but this is a minor omission. Species/strain and housing conditions are not applicable for a human study.

Sub-criteria

demographicsADEQUATE

sex reportedADEQUATE

sex justifiedNOT REPORTED

age weight healthADEQUATE

housing conditionsN/A

species strain sourceN/A

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

PASSReviewer 1· 90% conf

Biological variables are well reported for this human study, including sex, age, BMI, and demographics.

Evidence

paraphrase[Abstract]

“Seventy-seven young and healthy volunteers assigned male at birth...”

paraphrase[Results, Participant characteristics]

“Seventy-seven healthy adult men (median age = 25.6 years; interquartile range (IQR) = 21–27.2)... Participants with a body mass index (BMI) of 18–25.9 were eligible for inclusion...”

PASSReviewer 2· 90% conf

Biological variables are well reported: sex, age, BMI, and health status are described; demographics are provided for the human cohort.

Evidence

“Seventy-seven young and healthy volunteers assigned male at birth”

AbstractFind in source

“Seventy-seven healthy adult men (median age = 25.6 years; interquartile range (IQR) = 21–27.2)”

ResultsFind in source

“Baseline characteristics are summarized in Extended Data Table .”

ResultsFind in source

The paper includes an 'Ethics and inclusion statement' that describes collaboration and registration, but it does not name a specific IRB or ethics committee that approved the protocol, nor does it mention informed consent. The statement focuses on local collaboration and benefit-sharing. This is a reporting gap for a human interventional trial.

Sub-criteria

iacuc statementN/A

informed consentNOT REPORTED

irb ethics statementNOT REPORTED

regulatory complianceINADEQUATE

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

WARNReviewer 1· 80% conf

The paper reports trial registration and an ethics/inclusion statement, but does not explicitly name an ethics committee that approved the study or describe informed consent.

Evidence

paraphrase[Methods, Ethics and inclusion statement]

“Researchers from KCMC University in Moshi, Tanzania, had an integral role throughout the research process... The study was registered in the ISRCTN registry ( ISRCTN15619939 ) before the start of the study.”

absence[Methods, Ethics and inclusion statement]

Informed consent is not mentioned.

WARNReviewer 2· 80% conf

The paper mentions ethics and inclusion but does not provide a named ethics committee approval or explicit informed consent statement.

Evidence

“Researchers from KCMC University in Moshi, Tanzania, had an integral role throughout the research process, including study design and implementation, data ownership, intellectual property rights, and authorship of publications.”

EthicsFind in source

absence[Ethics and inclusion statement]

Informed consent is not mentioned.

paraphrase[Ethics and inclusion statement]

“The study was registered in the ISRCTN registry ( ISRCTN15619939 ) before the start of the study.”

The investigational products (diets and Mbege) are described in detail with menus and composition. Assay kits (Olink panels, ELISA) are named with manufacturers. Software tools are identified with versions. Antibodies, cell lines, and mycoplasma testing are not applicable to this human study.

Sub-criteria

mycoplasma testingN/A

reagents identifiedADEQUATE

organisms identifiedN/A

antibodies identifiedN/A

cell line authenticationN/A

software tools identifiedADEQUATE

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

PASSReviewer 1· 85% conf

Key resources are well identified, including the investigational diets, Olink panels, ELISA kits, and software tools.

Evidence

“using the 92-plex Olink inflammatory and cardiometabolic panels (proximity extension assays, Olink Proteomics AB)”

ResultsFind in source

“All statistical analyses and visualizations were conducted in R (v.4.1.1.), using ggplot2 (v.3.3.5) unless otherwise specified.”

Statistical analysisFind in source

PASSReviewer 2· 85% conf

Key resources are well identified: Olink panels, ELISA kits, software, and the fermented beverage are described; the investigational product (Mbege) is characterized.

Evidence

“using the 92-plex Olink inflammatory and cardiometabolic panels (proximity extension assays, Olink Proteomics AB)”

MethodsFind in source

“All statistical analyses and visualizations were conducted in R (v.4.1.1.), using ggplot2 (v.3.3.5)”

Statistical analysisFind in source

“Mbege, is prepared by fermenting boiled bananas with germinated finger millet porridge ( Eleusine coracana ).”

DiscussionFind in source

The paper names the statistical tests (LMM, DESeq2, Fisher's exact, Kruskal-Wallis) and describes the models. Effect sizes (fold changes) and confidence intervals are reported. Software is identified. Data presentation includes box plots with individual participant lines and per-group n. Exact p-values are not always given (often reported as thresholds like P < 0.05), but this is common in omics studies with multiple testing. Mathematical plausibility checks were not possible for most reported statistics due to the complex models.

Sub-criteria

tests namedADEQUATE

exact p valuesINADEQUATE

effect sizes ciADEQUATE

data presentationADEQUATE

software identifiedADEQUATE

assumptions verifiedINADEQUATE

mathematical plausibilityN/A

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

PASSReviewer 1· 85% conf

Statistical methods are thoroughly described, with named tests, effect sizes, and software; p-values are reported as thresholds, which is acceptable for this omics-heavy study.

Evidence

“For all statistical analyses, intra-individual measurements were assessed using an LMM, with time point as the main fixed variable, and age, BMI and activity ranking at baseline as covariates.”

Statistical analysisFind in source

paraphrase[Results, Plasma metabolome]

“An LMM analysis was applied to detect differentially abundant metabolites (DAMs) (absolute fold change greater than 1.2, P adj < 0.05)...”

PASSReviewer 2· 85% conf

Statistical methods are thoroughly described, including LMM, DESeq2, and multiple testing corrections; effect sizes and CIs are reported; p-values are adjusted.

Evidence

“For all statistical analyses, intra-individual measurements were assessed using an LMM, with time point as the main fixed variable, and age, BMI and activity ranking at baseline as covariates.”

Statistical analysisFind in source

“a significant increase in plasma CRP concentrations was observed in participants switching to a WD (after the intervention versus baseline, P = 0.020)”

ResultsFind in source

“Paired fold change values were calculated using the fcrosFCmat function from the fcros package”

Statistical analysisFind in source

The data availability statement names a concrete route: sequencing data in EGA with accession, and other data in the Radboud Data Repository with a Data Access Committee and decision timeframe. Code is available on GitHub. This meets the criteria for reported_and_adequate.

Sub-criteria

code sharingADEQUATE

accession numbersADEQUATE

repository depositADEQUATE

data availability statementADEQUATE

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

PASSReviewer 1· 95% conf

Data and code availability are exemplary, with a clear data access procedure and public code repository.

Evidence

“All sequencing data have been deposited in the European Genome–phenome Archive under accession no. EGAS50000000317”

Data availabilityFind in source

“All code scripts used for the analysis of the data are available at https://github.com/TalPecht/dietstudy_Temba_Pecht_2024/”

Data availabilityFind in source

PASSReviewer 2· 90% conf

Data and code availability are well addressed: sequencing data deposited in EGA, other data in Radboud Data Repository with managed access, and code on GitHub.

Evidence

“All sequencing data have been deposited in the European Genome–phenome Archive under accession no. EGAS50000000317”

Data availabilityFind in source

“All additional datasets, including anonymized participant meta-data, nutritional information, circulating leukocyte data, whole-blood cytokine responses, and plasma proteome and metabolome data, are deposited in the Radboud Data Repository ( https://data.ru.nl ).”

Data availabilityFind in source

“All code scripts used for the analysis of the data are available at https://github.com/TalPecht/dietstudy_Temba_Pecht_2024/ .”

Data availabilityFind in source

Methods are detailed enough for replication. The trial is registered (ISRCTN15619939). A reporting summary is mentioned. All outcomes are reported, including null results. Limitations are discussed. Conclusions are generally proportional, though some causal language is used. Funding and competing interests are stated.

Sub-criteria

funding coiADEQUATE

trial registrationADEQUATE

reporting guidelineADEQUATE

methods completenessADEQUATE

all outcomes reportedADEQUATE

limitations discussedADEQUATE

conclusions proportionalADEQUATE

Per reviewer (2) — the votes behind the verdict

PASSReviewer 1· 85% conf

The paper is transparent about methods, limitations, and funding, and is registered in a trial registry.

Evidence

“ISRCTN trial registration: ISRCTN15619939 (https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN15619939)”

AbstractFind in source

paraphrase[Discussion, paragraph 8]

“Our study also has a few limitations. First, food was offered ad libitum, and the intervention was not isocaloric...”

PASSReviewer 2· 85% conf

Reporting is transparent: methods are detailed, trial is registered, limitations are discussed, conclusions are proportional, and funding/COI are stated.

Evidence

“ISRCTN trial registration: ISRCTN15619939”

AbstractFind in source

“Our study also has a few limitations. First, food was offered ad libitum, and the intervention was not isocaloric, resulting in a weight gain in the AHD to WD switch group”

DiscussionFind in source

“This study was funded by the Joint Programming Initiative: A Healthy Diet for a Healthy Life (JPI-HDHL) and ZonMW (no. 529051018, TransMic project and TransInf project)”

AcknowledgementsFind in source

Registered (1 ID: ISRCTN). Reporting guideline cited: CONSORT.

ISRCTN

ISRCTN15619939

Reporting guidelines: CONSORT

Broken references and links

None found

References checked against Crossref, OpenAlex and Retraction Watch for retractions and resolvability, plus declared data and code links probed for whether they resolve to content matching the paper.

Checked — nothing surfaced.

Checked 61 references by DOI: 1 verified — 60 no DOI (shown, not verified).

NO DOI
Burden of non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, 1990-2017: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Urban–rural disparities in adult mortality in sub-Saharan Africa
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Plant-based diets for cardiovascular disease prevention: all plant foods are not created equal
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Differential peripheral immune signatures elicited by vegan versus ketogenic diets in humans
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Gut microbiota-targeted diets modulate human immune status
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Global impacts of Western diet and its effects on metabolism and health: a narrative review
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Western diet triggers NLRP3-dependent innate immune reprogramming
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Differences in the inflammatory proteome of East African and Western European adults and associations with environmental and dietary factors
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Differences in thrombin and plasmin generation potential between East African and Western European adults: the role of genetic and non‐genetic factors
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Urban living in healthy Tanzanians is associated with an inflammatory status driven by dietary and metabolic changes
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Brewing technique of mbege, a banana beer produced in northeastern Tanzania
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Fermented foods, health and the gut microbiome
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Fermented foods: their health-promoting components and potential effects on gut microbiota
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Homogenous 96-Plex PEA immunoassay exhibiting high sensitivity, specificity, and excellent scalability
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Thrombospondin-4 regulates vascular inflammation and atherogenesis
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Defective signaling in the JAK-STAT pathway tracks with chronic inflammation and cardiovascular risk in aging humans
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Decreased interferon-α and interferon-β production in obesity and expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Reversal of immunoparalysis in humans in vivo: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized pilot study
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Sepsis-induced immunosuppression: from cellular dysfunctions to immunotherapy
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Influence of the microbiome, diet and genetics on inter-individual variation in the human plasma metabolome
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
WikiPathways: pathway editing for the people
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
A high fat western diet attenuates phasic dopamine release
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Lauric acid alleviates insulin resistance by improving mitochondrial biogenesis in THP-1 macrophages
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Polydatin: pharmacological mechanisms, therapeutic targets, biological activities, and health benefits
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Fumarate hydratase as a metabolic regulator of immunity
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
The production of p-cresol sulfate and indoxyl sulfate in vegetarians versus omnivores
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Flavan-3-ols and vascular health: clinical evidence and mechanisms of action
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
The role of bacterial-derived aromatic amino acids metabolites relevant in autism spectrum disorders: a comprehensive review
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Myeloperoxidase in human neutrophil host defense
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
SON DNA-binding protein mediates macrophage autophagy and responses to intracellular infection
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
ELF4 is critical for induction of type I interferon and the host antiviral response
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Indole-3-lactic acid associated with Bifidobacterium -dominated microbiota significantly decreases inflammation in intestinal epithelial cells
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Leukocyte differential and reactive lymphocyte counts from Sysmex XN analyzer in the evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 infection
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
The effect of indigenous African diet on inflammatory markers linked to type 2 diabetic mellitus
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Nutritional, functional, and bioactive properties of African underutilized legumes
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Anti-diabetic prospects of dietary bio-actives of millets and the significance of the gut microbiota: a case of finger millet
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
A major mechanism for immunomodulation: dietary fibres and acid metabolites
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
The immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory role of polyphenols
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Gut microbiome-mediated metabolism effects on immunity in rural and urban African populations
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Bioactive components in traditional foods aimed at health promotion: a route to novel mechanistic insights and lead molecules?
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Western diet and the immune system: an inflammatory connection
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Unveiling the potential of African fermented cereal-based beverages: probiotics, functional drinks, health benefits and bioactive components
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Isolation and characterisation of yeasts and bacteria from Mbege—an opaque beer made from millet malt and banana juice
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Potent induction of trained immunity by Saccharomyces cerevisiae β-glucans
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Generation of the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol from tyrosol present in beer and red wine in a randomized clinical trial
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Optimal dietary patterns for prevention of chronic disease
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Inflammatory potential of diet and risk of cardiovascular disease or mortality: a meta-analysis
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Long-term secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet and a low-fat diet (CORDIOPREV): a randomised controlled trial
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Alternating high-fat diet enhances atherosclerosis by neutrophil reprogramming
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Role of neutrophils in different stages of atherosclerosis
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Mediterranean diet, neutrophil count, and carotid intima-media thickness in secondary prevention: the CORDIOPREV study
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Dietary Intake regulates the circulating inflammatory monocyte pool
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Short-term dietary changes can result in mucosal and systemic immune depression
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
High-throughput, accurate mass metabolome profiling of cellular extracts by flow injection–time-of-flight mass spectrometry
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Moderated estimation of fold change and dispersion for RNA-seq data with DESeq2
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
An object-oriented framework for robust multivariate analysis
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
Data-driven hypothesis weighting increases detection power in genome-scale multiple testing
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).
NO DOI
ChEA3: transcription factor enrichment analysis by orthogonal omics integration
No DOI in the reference — shown for manual review; not independently verifiable (not a fabrication signal).

12 of 13 data/code links checked; 12 live; 1 not probed.

dataEGALIVEHTTP 200
https://ega-archive.org/studies/EGAS50000000317
Resolves to EGA (data repository).
datahttps://data.ru.nlLIVEHTTP 200
Resolved page looks like data.
datahttps://www.costech.or.tz/Files/Documents/1728287181.pdfLIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://www.proteinatlas.org/LIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://www.proteinatlas.org/download/proteinatlas.tsv.zipLIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://www.genome.jp/kegg/compound/LIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://www.hmdb.ca/UNVERIFIEDHTTP 403
Liveness indeterminate — content not checked.
datahttps://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/LIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://www.metaboanalyst.ca/MetaboAnalyst/upload/ConvertView.xhtmlLIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://rampdb.nih.gov/LIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://geneontology.org/LIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
datahttps://maayanlab.cloud/chea3/api/enrich/LIVEHTTP 200
Resolves, but the content could not be matched to the paper.
codeGitHubLIVEHTTP 200
https://github.com/TalPecht/dietstudy_Temba_Pecht_2024/
Resolves to GitHub (code repository).

Copyediting

6 minor

Wording, consistency and formatting errors that need correcting before submission.

No major wording or formatting errors. 6 minor suggestions below.

6 copyedit issues flagged: mostly typo, consistency, clarity.

MINORtypoMethods, Whole-blood transcriptome
“fold change values were calcualted using results function”
→ Change 'calcualted' to 'calculated'.
Typographical error.
MINORconsistencyResults, Participant characteristics
“Seventy-seven healthy adult men (median age = 25.6 years; interquartile range (IQR) = 21–27.2)”
→ Ensure the median age is consistent with the IQR (25.6 is within 21-27.2, but check if the median should be 24.1).
Potential inconsistency in reported median age.
MINORclarityResults, Plasma metabolome
“while 74 increased and 24 decreased after the intervention compared to the baseline”
→ Clarify the time point for this comparison (likely 'at the follow-up').
Ambiguous phrasing; likely a typo.
MINORtypoMethods, Whole-blood transcriptome
“calcualted”
→ calculated
Typographical error.
MINORconsistencyResults, Participant characteristics
“Seventy-seven healthy adult men”
→ Ensure consistent reporting of participant numbers across text and figures.
The number of participants varies between 77, 76, and 75 in different sections; clarify the exact number analyzed.
MINORclarityResults, Plasma metabolome
“While 74 increased and 24 decreased after the intervention compared to the baseline”
→ Clarify the time point for this comparison.
The sentence is ambiguous; it may be a duplicate of the previous sentence.

Kaimen Rigor Action ItemsFinal pass before journal submission

The published work is largely robust, but readers should weigh the missing ethics approval details and incomplete design reporting (randomization, power) as limitations. An erratum or clarification from the authors would strengthen the record, particularly regarding ethics approval and informed consent.

1.
HIGHethics
Add a statement naming the ethics committee (IRB) that approved the study and the protocol number, and explicitly state that informed consent was obtained from all participants, in the Ethics and inclusion statement.
A human interventional trial must report the approving body and consent process; its absence is a reporting gap that readers and journals will flag.
2.
HIGHrigor
Describe the randomization method (e.g., computer-generated sequence, block randomization) and the unit of randomization (individual participant) in the Methods.
Randomization method is a core design element; its absence limits assessment of allocation concealment and bias.
3.
HIGHrigor
Provide a rationale for the open-label design (e.g., impossibility of blinding dietary interventions) and discuss potential bias in the Methods.
Open-label designs need justification to reassure readers about potential performance and detection bias.
4.
HIGHrigor
Include an a priori power analysis or sample size calculation with effect size, alpha, and power in the Methods.
Without a power analysis, readers cannot assess whether the study was adequately powered to detect the reported effects.
5.
MEDIUMrigor
Specify the inclusion/exclusion criteria more precisely (e.g., age range, health status) and clarify how the four participants with BMI >26 were handled in the analysis, in the Methods.
Precise criteria and handling of protocol deviations are needed for reproducibility and to assess potential bias.
6.
MEDIUMrigor
Describe how outliers were handled in the statistical analysis (e.g., exclusion criteria, sensitivity analyses) in the Methods.
Outlier handling affects the robustness of the results and should be transparent.
7.
MEDIUMrigor
Provide a scientific justification for enrolling only men in the study, or acknowledge the limitation and discuss implications for generalizability, in the Methods or Discussion.
Single-sex studies should justify the choice or note the limitation to inform interpretation.
8.
MEDIUMreporting
Mention adherence to a reporting guideline such as CONSORT in the Methods or Reporting Summary.
Explicitly stating adherence to CONSORT helps readers trust the completeness of reporting.
9.
MEDIUMreporting
Clarify the regulatory compliance statement by naming the specific ethical framework (e.g., Declaration of Helsinki) and the national regulatory body that approved the study.
Naming the framework and body strengthens the ethics statement and aligns with standard practice.
10.
MEDIUMcopyedit
Fix the typo 'calcualted' to 'calculated' in the Methods, Whole-blood transcriptome section.
Typographical errors undermine professionalism and clarity.
11.
MEDIUMcopyedit
Clarify the ambiguous sentence in the Results, Plasma metabolome section: 'while 74 increased and 24 decreased after the intervention compared to the baseline' — specify the time point and ensure it is not a duplicate.
Ambiguous phrasing can confuse readers about the exact comparison being made.
12.
MEDIUMcopyedit
Ensure consistent reporting of participant numbers across text and figures (e.g., 77, 76, 75; AHD to WD group 23 vs 22; fermented beverage group 22 vs 21) and clarify the exact number analyzed.
Inconsistent participant numbers raise concerns about data handling and transparency.
13.
LOWcopyedit
Verify the median age (25.6 years) is consistent with the IQR (21–27.2) and correct if needed.
A median outside the IQR would be an internal inconsistency; even if plausible, it should be verified.

Full text (97,827 chars · analyzed ~77%, head + tail)Analyzed: Aug 15, 2026

RigorReviewer 1

RigorReviewer 2

RigorPre-Submission Reviewer

CopyeditAgent Scribe

CitationsCitation Integrity

StatisticsStatistics Consistency

ReproducibilityLink verification (liveness + content)· no model (rule-based)

PreregistrationDeterministic check· no model (rule-based)

The star rating is the report’s one-glance summary. Every paper starts at 5★ and loses stars for the concrete problems the review finds — so a rating is never a vague average, it’s a running total you can read line by line under “How this rating was calculated.”

How stars are deducted

Reporting — 8 dimensionseach dimension that fully fails−½★
each dimension partially met−¼★
Statistics · Integrity · Claimseach serious problem−1★
each medium problem−½★
Citationseach retracted or unverifiable reference−¼★
Copyeditonly when the manuscript needs a full edit−½★

The rating never drops below 1★, and a demonstrable critical failure (an impossible statistic, a proven ethics violation) caps it at 1★ on its own — so the stars can never look healthy when the verdict is CRITICAL.

The rating draws on a panel of agents. Three independent Kaimen Rigor reviewers grade the eight dimensions below across several independent passes (the shown verdict is their majority vote — steadier than any single run), isolate the paper’s major claims and check its own evidence backs them, and flag integrity concerns. Alongside them, a citation agent resolves every reference against Crossref, OpenAlex, and Retraction Watch; a statistics agent recomputes reported tests; and rule-based checks verify that declared data/code links actually resolve. Full text is required — an abstract-only submission is not analyzed.

The eight reporting dimensions

Scientific PremisePrior work, rationale, and how it addresses gaps.

Study Design & RigorRandomization, blinding, power, controls, replication.

Biological VariablesSex, age, species/strain, housing, demographics.

Ethical ApprovalsIRB/IACUC approval, informed consent, regulatory compliance.

Key ResourcesAntibodies, cell lines, organisms, software — identified with persistent IDs.

Statistical ReportingNamed tests, exact p-values, effect sizes, plausible summary stats.

Data & Code AvailabilityAvailability statements, repositories, accession numbers, shared code.

Reporting TransparencyMethods, registration, guidelines, outcomes, limitations, funding/COI.

Graded against NIH, MDAR, ARRIVE 2.0, CONSORT, EQUATOR, and RRID guidelines. A dimension that doesn’t apply to the study type is skipped, never penalized.

This Kaimen Rigor review is model-assisted and is not a substitute for formal expert review. It complements human evaluation by surfacing potential methodological concerns — verify each finding against the source.

Immune and metabolic effects of African heritage diets versus Western diets in men: a randomized controlled trial.

DOI

10.1038/s41591-025-03602-0

Record issued

2026-08-15

Engine

7.39.0

Exported

2026-09-20